UNIT 3 THE HETMAN, THE DIRECTORY AND THE WESTERN UKRAINIAN PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC PERIOD
1A. What do you know about Hetman Pavlo Skoropadskyi? When did his rule
start and how long did it last? What were the main directions of the Ukrainian
foreign police during this period? How many countries did Ukraine send its
diplomatic missions to? How many foreign diplomatic missions did it have
in Ukraine? What were the relations of Ukraine with Russia? Were there any
talks between the two states? What about? Where? When? Who headed the
delegations? What practical steps were there to improve the legal base and
expertise of the Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Ukraine?
1B. What do you know about the Directory in Ukraine? When did it start
and how long did it last? What were the countries Ukraine established diplomatic
relations with during this period?What were the international negotiations
a Ukrainian delegation took part in during this period? What were
the innovations introduced into the diplomatic service under the Directory?
What were its diplomatic achievements?
1C. What do you know about the Western Ukrainian People’s Republic?
When did it start and how long did it last? What was its capital? What were
the main directions of the Western Ukrainian People’s Republic foreign police?
What were its relations with the Ukrainian People’s Republic? Did
Western Ukrainian People’s Republic send its diplomatic missions to any
countries? Did it take part in any international negotiations?
2. You are going to read a text about the Ukrainian diplomacy during
the the Hetman, the Directory and the Western Ukrainian People’s Re30
public period. Which of the following concepts can you expect in thetext?
Why or why not?
come to power steady expansion temporary broaden consular function
friendly relations witness succeed preserve POW
Quadruple Un ion consular staff structure embassies medical services
territorial
disputes
dip lomatic
missions
neighboring
states
educational
institution
diplomatic
contacts
neutral states plenipotentiary pass a law special delegation publishing
legal base peace talks consular service gain recognition ambassador
for eign countries negotiations training infor mation meetings
customary armed revolt take power basic law independence
empire Dnipro Entente aspiration mutual
historic unifi cation single state proclaim ex patriate
3. You are going to read three short texts on the Ukranian diplomacy
under Hetman Skoropadskyi, the Directory and the Western Ukrainian
People’s Republic. For questions 1–14 choose from texts A–C. The
texts may be chosen more than once. When more than one answer is
required, they may be given in any order. There is an example at the
beginning (0).
A. During the Hetman Skoropadskyi Period
When: B. During The Directory Period
C. During The Western Ukrainian People’s Republic Period
did the national foreign service contin ue to develop? 0 A B C
did Ukrainian dip lomats manage to get what they wanted at the
expense of others were contacts with religious authorities established? 2
did a particular expansion of Ukrainian diplomatic contacts
happen?
did the national foreign policy have three main elements? 4
were diplomatic relations with American countries established? 5
were Ukrainian dip lomats concerned about the consequences of
the war?
did Ukrainian dip lomats pay a lot of attention to the informational
function?
were there twice as many diplomatic representatives of other states
in Ukraine than Ukrainian dip lomatic missions abroad?
was a lot of attention paid to the legal aspects of diplomatic activity? 9
was a lot of attention paid to the integration issues? 10
did an official delegation serve as as a temporary diplomatic mission
as well
did a separate delegation cooperate with another delegation during
the talks?
was a lot of attention paid to the issue of state borders? 13
were peace talks held? 14
was a lot of care taken about the contacts with former Ukrainian
citizens?
did the the national foreign policy have two main elements?
was the diplomatic staff education introduced? did Ukrainian dip lomats organize a steady exchange of professional
information?
was force used to gain the power?
did Ukrainian dip lomats organize health and professional services
abroad?
A
With the coming to power on 28 April 1918 of Pavlo Skoropadskyi,
the Hetman of the Ukrainian State, the Ukrainian Government
contin ued to develop the national foreign service.
Three main directions of foreign policy of the Ukrain ian State were defined:
“establishment of friendly relations with the countries of the Quadruple
Un ion; settlement of territorial disputes with the neighboring
countries; and establishment of diplo matic relations with neutral states”.
The period of the Hetman government witnessed a steady expansion of
diplomatic relations with for eign countries. Thus, the Ukrainian State
sent its dip lomatic missions to Romania, Finland, Switzerland, Sweden (a
total of 10 states), and received more than twenty plenipotentiary representatives
of other states (Austro-Hungary, Bulgaria, Georgia, Germany,
Turkey, Poland, Romania, Finland and others).
The Government of the Ukrainian State also formed a separate delegation
for peace talks with Russia. The negotiations with the Russian delegation
took place in Kyiv in May-October 1918. The delegation of the Russian
Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, headed by Christian Rakovsky and Dmytro Manuilsky, also served as a temporary diplomatic mission to the
Ukrainian State.
When Dmytro Doroshenko succeeded Mykola Vasylenko as the Minister
for Foreign Affairs of the Ukrainian State, several important steps were
taken to improve the structure of the Ukrainian Foreign Ministry and legal
base for foreign policy activities. “The Law on Embassies and Missions
of the Ukrain ian State” was passed in June 1918, and “The Law
on Ukrainian Consular Service” was passed in July 1918. First national
Consular School started its work under the Hetman government. It was
cre ated as an educational institution for training diplo matic and consular
staff for the state.
B.
When the Second Republican Government (the Directory) was
created in December 1918, diplomatic contacts of the previous
Ukrainian governments were preserved to a considerable
ex tent, and sometimes even broadened.
In particular, the Directory, whose first Foreign Minis ter was Volodymyr
Chekhivsky, sent its diplomatic missions to Belgium, United Kingdom,
Greece, Italy, and the USA. Its embassies were opened in Estonia, Latvia,
Czechoslovakia, and Hungary. Under the Di rectory, the Ukrainian State
was represented in the Vatican. A delegation of the UPR participated in
Paris Peace Conference, at the same time serving as a temporary diplomatic
mission of Ukraine to France.
The main activities of Ukrainian diplomatic missions and special delegations
of the UPR were aimed at gaining recognition of Ukraine and enlisting
interna tional support in its nation-building aspirations. Dip lomatic
missions of the UPR conducted broad infor mation and publishing work,
as well as performed basic consular functions. Return of Ukrainian POWs
was organized in countries where they were held; the missions in Berlin,
Vienna and Rome included military and medical services for POWs.
Conducting meetings of ambassadors and heads of diplomatic missions
became customary under the Directory, with the most important of them
held in Carlsbad in 1919 and in Vienna in 1920.
C.
Foreign policy activity of the Western Ukrainian People’s Republic
(WUPR) became an impor tant page of the history of Ukrainian
diplomacy.
As a result of an armed revolt, the National Council took power in L’viv on
1 November 1918. On 13 November, it adopted the Temporary Basic Law
on the Independence of Ukrainian Lands Previously Part of the Former
Austro-Hungarian Empire and the Es tablishment of an Independent State.
The WUPR’s foreign policy activity mostly consisted of two key directions:
relations with “Dnipro Ukraine”, i.e. the Ukrainian People’s Republic,
and the Entente states.
Being guided by mutual aspiration for historic unifi cation of Ukrainian lands
into a single state, repre sentatives of both governments publicly proclaimed
the Act of Unification of the UPR and WUPR on 22 January 1919.
The government of the WUPR established broad dip lomatic contacts,
having opened its own missions in Austria, Italy, Germany, Hungary,
Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia. Special missions were sent to the countries
where a considerable number of Ukrainian ex patriates lived, i.e. to
Canada, the USA and Brazil.
In July 1919 the government of the WUPR sent a separate delegation to
Paris Peace Talks, where the WUPR representatives worked together with
diplo matic mission of the UPR.
4. Go back to exercises 1A, 1B, 1C. Can you answer the questions now?
5. Find in the text the words meaning:
А. 1. прихід до влади; 2. розбудова вітчизняної зовнішньополітич-
ної служби; 3. основні напрями зовнішньої політики; 4. україн-
ський уряд; 5. встановлення дружніх відносин; 6. країни Чет-
вертного Союзу; 7. вирішення спірних територіальних проблем;
8. сусідні держави; 9. дипломатичні відносини; 10. нейтральні
держави; 11. діяльність Гетьманського уряду; 12. розширити коло
країн; 13. встановити дипломатичні відносини; 14. започаткува-
ти роботу дипломатичних місій; 15. повноважний представник;
16. формувати окрему делегацію; 17. мирні переговори; 18. очолювати
делегацію; 19. виконувати функції; 20. тимчасове дипломатич-
не представництво; 21. Міністр закордонних справ; 22. змінювати
на посаді; 23. здійснювати ряд важливих кроків; 24. вдосконалення
структури українського МЗС; 25. вдосконалення законодавчої бази
зовнішньополітичної діяльності; 26. приймати закон; 27. Закон про
посольства і місії Української Держави; 28. 3акон про українську
консульську службу; 29. за період Гетьманського уряду; 30. розпочи-
нати діяльність; 31. перші вітчизняні Консульські курси; 32. навчаль-
ний заклад; 33. підготовка дипломатичних і консульських фахівців.
В. 1. створення республіканського уряду; 2. Директорія; 3. значною
мірою; 4. попередні українські уряди; 5. зберігати та розширювати ди-
пломатичні контакти; 6. направляти дипломатичні місії; 7. відкривати
посольства; 8. бути представленим; 9. Паризька мирна конференція;
10. брати участь; 11. виконувати функції; 12. тимчасове дипломатичне
представництво; 13. основна діяльність; 14. українське диплома-
тичне представництво; 15. спеціальна делегація УНР; 16. бути
спрямованим на; 17. забезпечити визнання України; 18. заручи-
тися міжнародною підтримкою; 19. державницькі прагнення;
20. дипломатичні установи; 21. здійснювати широку інформа-
ційну та видавничу діяльність; 22. виконувати основні консульські
функції; 23. військовополонений; 24. повернення на Батьківщину;
25. утримувати військовополонених; 26. військово-санітарні місії;
27. за часів Директорії; 28. ввійти до практики української зовніш-
ньополітичної служби; 29. проведення з’їздів послів і глав диплома-
тичних місій.
С. 1. невід’ємна сторінка історії української дипломатії; 2. зовніш-
ньополітична діяльність; 3. збройне повстання; 4. Національна Рада;
5. прийти до влади; 6. Тимчасовий Основний Закон; 7. прийняти кон-
ституцію; 8. самостійність українських земель; 9. колишній; 10. утво-
рення самостійної держави; 11. зводитися до двох ключових напрямів;
12. відносини з державами; 13. спільне прагнення; 14. історичне
об’єднання; 15. соборна держава; 16. керуватися; 17. представни-
ки обох урядів; 18. привселюдно; 19. проголосити Акт злуки; 20. на-
лагодити широкі дипломатичні контакти; 21. відкрити власні пред-
ставництва; 22. спеціальна місія; 23. значна кількість української
еміграції; 24. відрядити окрему делегацію; 25. мирні переговори;
26. взаємодіяти з дипломатичною місією.
6. Fill in the blanks in the sentences below with the English equivalents
of the words and word-combinations from exercise 5.
A. 1. Hetman Pavlo Skoropadskyi came to ___________ in the spring of
1918. 2. All countries make efforts to develop their national ____________
service. 3. It is reasonable to define the main _________ of the country’s
foreign policy. 4. The general aim of diplomacy is the __________ of
friendly relations with the countries of the world. 5. In the relations with the
neighboring __________ it is often necessary to settle territorial ________
____. 6. We are witnessing a steady _____________ of diplomatic relations
of Ukraine with for eign countries. 7. Since the declaration of independence
Ukraine has sent its ______________ missions to most major countries
and received _____________ representatives of those states. 8. In the last
ten years the Ukrainian Government has been forming ________ delegations
for international ___________. 9. The __________ with the Romanian
delegation on border issues took place in Kyiv. 10. The delegation of
Czech Republic, ___________ by the President, arrived yesterday. 11. In
the transitional period delegations sometimes served as ___________ diplomatic
missions to particular states. 12. Dmytro Doroshenko __________
Mykola Vasylenko as the Minister for Foreign Affairs. 13. The Foreign
Ministry has ________ several important steps to___________its own
structure. 14. A lot has been done to provide the legal _________ for foreign
policy activities. 15. The task is to open Ukrain ian _________ and missions
in most countries of the world. 16. The full-fledged consular __________ is
also important. 17. The Law on Ukrainian Consular Service was among the
first to have been _________. 18 A special Consular School was cre ated to
____________ diplomatic staff.
B. 1. In the transition periods it is important to _____________ the diplomatic
contacts of the previous governments. 2. The task of each next government
is to broaden the country’s international rtelations. 3. Under the previous
government the country failed to be __________ in the Vatican. 4. Their
delegation did not ____________ in the Conference. 5. The main task of
diplomaacy in the newly independent states is to gain international ____
______ of those countries and enlist interna tional support in their nationbuilding
_________. 6. Another important task of dip lomatic missions is
to _________ broad infor mation and publishing work and to ___________
basic consular functions. 7. In the post-war period dip lomatic missions are
usually concerned with the problem of the return of the _________-of36
war. 8. In such cases special _________ and ____________ services are
opened at the dip lomatic missions. 9. For the coordination of diplomatic efforts,
the diplomatic service conducts meetings of ____________ and heads
of ____________ missions. 10. Such meetings are ___________ annually.
C. 1. All countries of the world ________ their own foreign policy. 2. The
National Council took power as a result of an armed _________. 3. The
National Council __________ the Temporary Constitution. 4. The National
Council ___________ es tablishment of an independent state. 5. The country
was ___________ part of the __________ Roman Empire. 6. Independence
of Ukrainian Lands and the. 7. The country’s foreign policy mostly
consisted of two main __________. 8. Both countries were guided by ____
_____ aspiration. 9. The historic __________ of two German countries into
a single state happened in the 1980s. 10. The unification was __________
proclaimed by the repre sentatives of both governments. 11. The new country
managed to _________ broad dip lomatic contacts in a short time. 12. It
has opened its own ____________ in many countries. 13. It has also sent
________ missions to the coun tries where a considerable number of Ukrainian
___________ live. 14. It was very important to send a separate delegation
to the Peace _________, as much in the post-war period depended on
their results. 15. It was planned that the ____________ missions of the two
countries would work together.
7. Render the following proper names into English.
А. Румунія, Фінляндія, Швейцарія, Швеція, Австро-Угорщина, Болга-
рія, Грузія, Німеччина, Туреччина, Польща, Румунія, Фінляндія, Ро-
сія, РСФСР, Бельгія, Велика Британія, Греція, Італія, США, Естонія,
Латвія, Чехо-Словаччина, Угорщина, Ватикан, УНР, Франція, ЗУНР,
Львів, Австро-Угорська імперія; Наддніпрянська Україна, Антанта,
Австрія, Італія, Югославія, Канада, США, Бразилія.
Б. Берлін, Париж, Відень, Рим, Карлові Вари,
В. Павло Скоропадський, Дмитро Дорошенко, Микола Василенко,
Володимир Чехівський.
8. Work in pairs. Reproduce the texts on activity of Ukrainian diplomacy
during the Hetman, Directory and the Western Ukrainian
People’s Republic periods to your partner. Use the headlines below
as the backbone for your story.
A. The Hetman Period
1. The three main directions of the Ukrainian foreign policy
2. A steady expansion of diplomatic relations
3. Negotiations with Russia
4. The development of the diplomatic service: the legal base and
training of staff
B. The Directory Period
1. A new expansion of diplomatic relations: more missions and Paris
Peace Conference
2. The main aims: international recognition and support – information,
publishing, POW
3. Regular coordination meetings
C. Western Ukrainian People’s Republic (WUPR)
1. To power by an armed revolt
2. The two main directions of the WUPR’s foreign policy
3. The Unification Act
4. WUPR’s broad diplomatic relations
5. Cooperation with UPR’s delegation at Paris Peace Talks
9. Read the text (adapted from the article by Volodymyr SHEVCHENKO
in The Day of March 30, 2004) and answer the following questions:
What are the similarities and differences between the efforts of Ukrainians
to build an independent state in 1918–1921 and the situation in
Zakarpattia as described in the article. Compare the international
situation, the diplomatic activity of neighboring countries and other
factors. See also the instructions to ex.10, Lesson 2.
Heroes of the Silver Land
After World War I Zakarpattia, an ancient Ukrainian region that had been
under Hungary for almost a thousand years, was ceded under the 1919 Peace
Treaty of Saint-Germain to the Czechoslovakian Republic as Podkarpatska
(Sub-Carpathian) Ruthenia. The treaty envisioned its autonomy. Unfortunately,
the Prague government was in no hurry to fulfill this provision. Already
in 1919 the people of Zakarpattia demanded reunification of their
land, which they poetically call the Sliver Land, with Ukraine and contin38
ued struggling for their autonomy and fair delimitation of its borders within
Czechoslovakia.
In the latter half of the 1930s, the international situation was greatly affected
by a major trend in the policy of Fascist Germany, which sought to expand
the lands of the Germans (Arians) by means of capturing the territory of
neighboring countries and above all those of the Slavic nations.
On September 29–30, 1938 Great Britain, France, Germany, and Italy met
at the Munich Conference without the participation of Czechoslovakia and
signed the Munich Agreement forcing Czechoslovakia to cede its highlydeveloped
(ethnically German) Sudetenland to the Third Reich. In early October
1938 Poland, backed by Germany, annexed Czechoslovakia’s (ethnically
Polish) Cieszyn Silesia Province.
Under such difficult conditions, the government of the divided Czechoslovakia
complied with the requirements of the Saint-Germain Peace Treaty and
its 1920 Constitution by granting autonomy to Slovakia and Zakarpattia. On
October 8, 1938 the Ukrainian People’s Rada [Council] of the Carpathian
Rus was created in Uzhhorod and proclaimed itself as “the only legitimate
representative of all the Ruthenian lands (including Priashivshchyna), whose
population is guaranteed self-determination and self-government.” Executive
power passed to the Carpathian-Ruthenian Autonomous Government. With
the appointment of Avhustyn Voloshyn as prime minister of Carpathian
Ukraine on October 26, the activity of the People’s Council and government
became clearly Ukrainian in their orientation. On October 27 the Ukrainian
People’s Council aired its address to the Ukrainians of the world: “We believe
that the great Ukrainian people of fifty million will speak out and will
not allow our sworn enemies to enthrall and jail us again.” In response to
this address Ukrainians from Halychyna and from as far as Dnipro Ukraine
began to cross the border en masse to help build the new Carpathian state.
Yet the appearance of autonomous Carpathian Ukraine was not well-received
by other countries, above all Hungary and Poland. The former did
not conceal its desire to these lands (that it had lost after World War I). The
Polish government opposed the creation of a Ukrainian state in Zakarpattia
in any form, since in this it saw a threat to its rule in Western Ukraine, whose
population could follow in the footsteps of their brothers in Zakarpattia.
Hitler and Mussolini supported the aggressive aspirations of their Hungarian
allies. On November 2, 1938 foreign ministers Ribbentrop of Germany and Ciano of Italy organized the so-called first Vienna Arbitration on Hungary’s
territorial claims on Czechoslovakia, ruling that Hungary should receive
12% of the territory of Zakarpattia, 97 towns and settlements, among
them Uzhhorod, Mukachevo, and Berehove, along with its fertile lands in
the valleys. This disrupted economic ties and communication among people
within a country that had been a single whole until then. The Voloshyn government
was forced to relocate from Uzhhorod to Khust. In organizing its
work in the new capital the government relied heavily on members of the
first chota (a local division of national fighters) of the Ukrainian People’s
Defense, many of whom were Ukrainians from Halychyna, in particular
OUN (Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists) members.
Faced with a complex domestic and foreign policy situation, the Voloshyn
government worked to stabilize the economy, unify all Ukrainian patriotic
forces, develop statehood, and seek support from other nations. Yet the latter’s
indifference, Father Voloshyn’s shortage of funds, disrupted economic ties, and
political instability rendered the solution of pressing problems impossible. A
weak state apparatus made many mistakes and miscalculations.
Yet despite all the hardships and losses in the cultural life of the autonomy,
culture being a crucial factor of unifying the people who struggle with hardships,
some progress was registered. Schools continued to work and new
educational establishments opened. Nova Svoboda [New Freedom] daily
was published, nationally-minded youth published the Nastup [Offensive]
newspaper, the village population had their own publication, Carpathian
Ukraine. Well-known Ukrainian writers Oleksandr Oles and Ulas Samchuk
moved to Khust. A literary and artistic association was created, which published
its monthly. Ruthenian writers created their own association. A state
theater, New Stage, relocated to Khust and in late 1938 staged Zaporozhets
za Dunayem [Zaporozhzhian Cossack Beyond the Danube]. People from the
Ukrainian diaspora created the first film studio in Zakarpattia and began
shooting a film that came to be known as The Tragedy of Carpathian.
Meanwhile, the international standing of Carpathian Ukraine was becoming
more and more precarious with each passing day. Hungary, whose territorial
claims had not been fully satisfied, continued its anti-Ukrainian diplomatic
demarches and sent to Carpathian Ukraine groups of terrorists and
provocateurs. Poland followed suit, its government repeatedly attempting
to persuade Berlin to give Poland northern Zakarpattia on top of its already
annexed Cieszyn Province of Czechoslovakia. Poland would not even have minded if all of Zakarpattia became subordinated to Hungary. The Polish
government could not put up with the existence of a sovereign Ukrainian
state on Halychyna’s border and also sent there its groups to commit acts of
sabotage and terrorism.
Hitler tried to use this situation in every possible way. Inclined to cede all of
Zakarpattia to Hungary, he was doing this gradually so as to more closely tie
Hungary to Germany’s interests. He achieved what he wanted. On February
24, 1939, Hungary’s military dictator Admiral Horthy, kowtowing to Berlin
on everything, announced his decision to join the Anti-Comintern Pact.
Under such conditions Moscow called the consequences of the Vienna Arbitrage
a violation of international norms. Meanwhile, it dismissed as propaganda
the rumors circulated by the press and Western diplomats about
the possible use of the statehood of Zakarpattia to annex other Ukrainian
lands. Soviet People’s Commissar for Foreign Affairs Maksim Litvinov
stated on December 19, 1938: “We are not even sure that... Hitler treats the
Ukrainian cause seriously. This could be a case of diplomatic sabotage.”
As events unfolded it became obvious that Hitler did not intend to renew
Ukrainian statehood in any form or encourage it. In January 1939 the Soviet
Union severed diplomatic relations with Hungary, calling it a country that
did not have an independent foreign policy, followed the lead of Fascist
Germany, and encroached on Ukrainian lands.
On March 10, 1939, Stalin responded to reports in the Western press about
plans to annex Soviet Ukraine to Carpathian Ukraine, calling such fabrications
“suspicious noise,” its aim being to provoke a conflict between the
USSR and Germany where there was no reason for it, and used awkward
epithets with respect to Zakarpattia.
Official Soviet documents condemned the aggressive plans with respect to
Carpathian Ukraine. Further, the March 18, 1939 note of the USSR People’s
Committee of Foreign Affairs stated explicitly that the actions of the German
government became a signal for a brutal invasion by the Hungarian
forces into Carpathian Ukraine and violations of the fundamental rights of its
population. Other countries ignored the tragedy unfolding in Zakarpattia.
Unfortunately, far from all Ukrainian statesman fully realized the actual
situation. As Prof. Hranchak rightly noted, “Let us face it: against all odds
the leadership of Carpathian Ukraine hoped that Fascist Germany would allow
the creation of a small Ukrainian state in the Carpathians. But this was wishful thinking, for Berlin only cared about its own interests in the East. The
solution of the Ukrainian question did not fit into its aggressive plans.”
The November 9, 1938, a constituent assembly in Khust created the Organization
of People’s Defense, the Carpathian Sich. “Any individual of the
Ukrainian nation, who has attained the age of eighteen and is a citizen of
Carpathian Ukraine” could become a Sich national fighter. The local units
(chotas ) were united in district koshes subordinated to the General Command
in Khust. A uniform with decorations was introduced, and donations
were solicited for the defense of the state. Over a short period ten district
units of Sichovyky were organized and underwent military training. Researchers
differ as to the general number of Sichovyky, ranging between
2,000 and 10,000. They were poorly armed and lacked the necessary training
and combat experience, often acted rashly and became involved in conflicts
with Czech soldiers. But they were brave patriots. Outnumbered by the
thousands of the Hungarian army backed by Germany and Italy, the Sichovyky
courageously defended their land against all odds. The Ukrainians of
Zakarpattia fought a war, defending their land from foreign aggressors. As
Carpathian Sich Headquarters Chief Mykhailo Kolodzinsky (“Colonel Huzar”)
put it, “when there is no reasonable way out of a difficult situation, one
must die the death of a hero, so that it would become a source of strength for
the future generations.”
Sichovyky and other Ukrainians serving in the local units of the Czech Army
began an armed struggle against the occupants already in 1938, fighting off
sabotage and terrorist groups of Hungarian fascists and Polish combatants (socalled
Carpathian Legionnaires). In the fall of 1938 between 600 and 1,000
Hungarian terrorists infiltrated Carpathian Ukraine. On October 5 they blew
up a bridge near the railway station of Borzhava. On October 10, 86 Hungarian
saboteurs attacked a gendarme post and the Borzhava railroad station,
where they killed a conductor, robbed passengers, and dismantled railway
tracks. Polish and Hungarian terrorists committed numerous armed provocations
in Velykoberezniansk district, blowing up viaduct bridges and tunnels.
On March 6, 1939 Hitler ordered the liquidation of the Czechoslovakian
Sovereign Republic and on March 12 allowed the Hungarian Regent Horthy
to invade Carpathian Ukraine and annex its lands. In response to Voloshyn’s
telegrams to Berlin requesting protection from the occupants, the German
consul in Khust, speaking on behalf of Ribbentrop’s ministry, advised him
“not to resist the Hungarian invasion.”
Under such conditions, on March 15, 1939 the parliament of Carpathian
Ukraine proclaimed independence and elected Avhustyn Voloshyn president
of the newly-created state. Ukrainian was named the state language, a blueand-
yellow flag was chosen as the state flag and a combination of the emblem
of Zakarpattia (a bear in the left red field and three blue and two yellow
stripes in the right field) and the trident of Volodymyr the Great as the state
emblem. The national anthem, “Ukraine Has Not Died Yet,” was chosen as
the state anthem.
The Hungarian forces invaded Carpathian Ukraine on March 14. They met
heavy resistance outside Mukacheve and in Uzhhorod district. On the morning
of March 15 Hungarian forces began a general offensive in three directions
— western, central, and eastern. The occupants met resistance from
Sich and units of the Czech Army that tried to break through into Slovakia.
The fiercest fighting took place on March 15 in a valley outside Khust. Here
the Hungarian aggressors met resistance from nearly 2,000 Sich national fighters
and as many Czech soldiers. Among the defenders were many gymnasium
students. The Hungarians had an advantage over the Ukrainians as they attacked
from the mountains and were better armed and trained. The Sich fighters
were no match for them in strength and weapons, but put up a defense on
level ground. Fierce fighting lasted throughout the day. The Ukrainians put up
a desperate defense to win time for the parliament to meet in session.
The enemy suffered casualties of 160 dead and 400 wounded. But the forces
were uneven. Some 230 defenders were killed, 450 captured, many more
wounded, among them severely wounded the Commander Huzar and his
deputy Kosak. Both had been captured by the fascists and executed days
later. The savages killed most captives on the spot, among them many gymnasium
and seminary students. Armed clashes in the streets of Khust continued
through the night. Bloody battles took place on March 16-18. On the
night of March 18 the aggressors occupied all of Zakarpattia and reached
the Polish border, where they were warmly received by the Polish forces
ready to assist the occupants if necessary. With Hitler’s blessing the Silver
Land had been trampled by the bloody boot of Horthy’s regime backed by
Poland and Romania. The latter handed Sich detained on its border over to
the Hungarians, who immediately executed them and dumped their bodies
into the Tisza. The Polish border guard also met with gunfire the Sich which
attempted to cross the border into Halychyna. Only a few managed to escape
to Slovakia.
During the March 1939 battles in Zakarpattia, over 5,000 Ukrainians were
killed defending their homeland. The ultimate sacrifice by the Ukrainians
of Zakarpattia is a heroic page in our history. Here Ukrainians clashed in a
mortal combat with the fascist warmongers of the World War II, oppressors
of our homeland. These days we celebrate the sixtieth anniversary of its liberation
from the German, Hungarian, and Romanian occupiers
10. Write a 300-word essay on the diplomatic and political lessons of the
Carpathian Ukraine period for contemporary Ukraine.